Tag Archives: Bronze Age Crete

The Magnificent Horse and its importance

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The horse has arguably been more important to human history than even the dog. Both have served as work animals, that is true, but the horse has altered the course of civilization.

Yes, the horse has drawn the plow. Certainly very important but oxen also were used to pull plows as well as other vehicles – carts, wagons and the like. But the major importance of horses, unlike any other animal, was their use in war.

The Botai – the Eurasian nomads of the steppes – have been credited with domestication of the horse and its gradual transformation from the wild genus to the domesticated one. The horse gave the steppe dwellers a tremendous advantage: mobility as well as an elevated position from which to rain down blows. They were fast and could travel great distances. And they did. Successive waves of these warriors swept into India and across Europe, right up to and including recorded time. Think Genghis Khan.

This culture had no arts to speak of. Their pottery, according to famed archaeologist Maria Gimbutas, was poor quality, especially when compared to the pottery of Crete. But they had weapons and with horses they were almost unbeatable.

What were the civilizations they swept across? Almost all were agrarian, peaceful and Goddess worshipping. They made sacrifices for good harvests and easy births. They didn’t have a chance. Crete ‘s culture survived because it was on an island. (And on the island it was peaceful- their cities were not walled.). A remnant survived in the British Isles. (the Picts – remember Hadrian’s Wall? Built by the Romans, it was designed to keep the Picts away.) And the Basques who still speak a non Indo-European language. Scandinavia managed to hold on to their culture. They successfully resisted Christianity for hundreds of years, converting at the point of a sword, and then grafting their sacred pantheon on to the Christian God.

But I digress.

This is what these mounted nomads brought with them.

Language

Almost all of the languages spoken now, especially across Europe, is classed as Indo-European, although pockets of the earlier languages remain. Basque, for example, is still spoken today. According to Gimbutas, the Basques continue some of the traditions as well that stretch all the way back, probably to the Neolithic. In Crete and Anatolia place names from the early civilizations remain. Knossos, for example, is not Indo-European.

Written languages too were affected. The Cretans had three languages. A form of hieroglyphics (and yes, Crete and Egypt were neighbors and trading partners so probably there was some cross-fertilization), Linear A and Linear B. B is newer and was deciphered in the fifties. It is a form of early Greek, an Indo-European language. The other two remain mysterious.

With the Indo-European invasion, writing disappeared along with the fine pottery and many other examples of the civilization.

Religion. Instead of a pantheon of Gods and Goddesses, with A female centered deity, the new God was male.The new God-centered religion and the status of women intersected.

Patriarchy went with these mounted warriors and the status of women took a nosedive. This culture worshipped male Gods and was stratified with warriors at the top, priests next, and craftsmen below. Warriors were buried with their weapons and sometimes their horses.

Take the Mycenaeans, for example. The Acheans were one of the first waves to hit Greece. Take Helen of Troy, for instance. She was a princess, semi-divine, wealthy and the heir to the throne. Not her brothers – her. So the transformation of a women’s status was gradual. However, she could not choose her husband and her life was marked by rape and violence. At least the Mycenaeans were influenced by the earlier Bronze Age culture. As successive, and more warlike, waves of invaders came down eventually even Crete was breached and its cities sacked and burned.

We all know that the Jews are credited with the first monotheistic faith. Not so fast. According to Elinor W. Gadon, the very early Jews also worshipped a Goddess – the Queen of Heaven. In Jeremiah the prophet speaks out against her, saying that the Hebrews were exiled from Judea because of their neglect of Yahweh. (When they were exiled they went to Babylon which was at that time transitioning from Goddess worship to God worship. (Maria Gimbutas – The Living Goddesses.) Anyway, according to the Bible, the people retorted that Judea fell because the rituals to the Goddess had been neglected after they’d been forbidden by the Deuteronomic reforms. (Jeremiah 44: 15-19).

By the time of the Classical Greeks and Romans, the status of women was in the cellar. Women were no longer permitted to leave the courtyards of father or husband except on certain religious festival days. In Greece homosexuality and pederasty were institutionalized. It makes a sort of sense if women were so devalued, their only value that of producing heirs, how could they possibly deserve love? In Rome women had no names but that of, first their fathers, and then their husbands.

The situation certainly did not improve with the advent of Christianity. Augustinian uses urine and feces to describe childbirth and refers to women as all that is vile, lowly and corruptible. We know one result of such passionate misogyny: the witch trials of the 1600s. According to Gabon (The Once and Future Goddess) thousands and thousands of women were burned at the stake. Estimates range from 100,000 to 9,000,000 (including women who died in prison). In some villages there were no women left alive.

Because patriarchy has lasted so long we now think of it as ‘normal’. But gradually everything is changing. I started my research with Arthur Evans, the archaeologist who first excavated Knossos. As I read through his writings I found his prejudices on open display. One example: despite all the frescos featuring women, he insisted they must all be of Goddesses. (And a lot of them are.) But his rationale was that there had to be a king, women could not possibly hold the power and the importance demonstrated by the art. And that is why the Bronze Age Civilization has been called the Minoan civilization, after Minos the King referred to in the Theseus myth. (This is not even historically accurate. If there were such a king, he would have probably been a Mycaenaen.)

The agrarian societies were pretty peaceful. That certainly has not been true of all that has come after, up to and including today. War and conquest has continued pretty much unabated for millennia.

Well, I have gone pretty far afield from my study of horses. Would patriarchy have conquered all without the nomadic horde? Maybe. Maybe not. After all, many of the American Indian tribes still take counsel from their ‘Grandmothers’. But I think it is pretty clear that the domestication of horses changed everything.

What on earth is a wanax

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In all three of my Bronze Age Crete mysteries, I describe Tinos, the consort of the High Priestess, as a wanax. In Mycenae Greece, a wanax was the high king or priest king, but the term is actually not only pre-Greek but of a non-Indo-European origin. It was found in a Linear B tablet which shows how long and important this position was.

Since current scholarship describes Crete as worshipping a Supreme Goddess and with women enjoying high status, I chose to make the High Priestess the central religious power. But any society needs to be administered and that was one of the functions of the wanax in the cultures around the Aegean.

Archaeologists theorize that the High Priestess had a consort. This supposition is borne out by the images on seals and other metal artifacts showing a large female figure with a smaller male beside them. Since fertility was so important then, Campbell interpreted many of the early rituals as promoting fertility, not just of the land and the livestock, but the people as well. So, I thought it made sense for the consort, whose central job was tied to the fertility of the county, to also serve as the chief administrator of the society.

Tinos, therefore, handles the military, economic functions of the government, as well as serving as the chief law enforcement officer.

Knossos

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Arthur Evans, who excavated Knossos, estimated the original Neolithic settlements on Crete stretch back to 8000 B.C.E. By 2000, the civilization had transitioned from wattle and daub huts to an affluent society marked by mis-named palaces. Misnamed because it is thought they were not simply the abode of the rulers but also governmental, religious and craftsmen centers. The remains of storage rooms were also discovered on this site. Below is the most famous image from Knossos.

Below are the large storage vessels known as pithoi.

Knossos was destroyed several times. Crete is prone to earthquakes and there is a nearby volcano. Until about 1400 to 1450 B.C.E. Knossos was always rebuilt. What happened after that date? Santorini (Thera) erupted, causing ash to spread as far west as Turkey and a tsunami to overwhelm the boats in the Knossos harbor. Largely destroyed, Knossos and other towns were easy pickings for the Mycenae, the mainland Greeks. They swept in and took over. They adopted much from the Minoan civilization, including their Gods and Goddesses. (Zeus, Dionysus, Hera, and Artemis are some that were worshipped on Crete before migrating to mainland Greece.)

The ruins of other Minoan cities can be visited. Gournia is one. Akrotiri is another. This was a colony from Crete, and was buried in volcanic ash. It is now being excavated. But Knossos appears to be the largest and most important.

Since the ruins were excavated Knossos has become a major tourist attraction. Parts have been rebuilt and some of it has been repainted in what is thought to be the original colors.

Here is one example: the so-called throne room. The lustral basin in the foreground and the griffins (a symbol of the Goddess) indicated that this chamber was probably used for religious purposes.

Ancient Religious Mysteries

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In A Murder of Furies, Martis undergoes an initiation in order to embark upon several quests.

Although I imagined most of what Martis endures, I read widely about the ancient mysteries, particularly about Dionysus and Artemis. Both are very old Gods and it is believed both were present in the pantheon of Bronze Age Crete. Because these were mysteries, known only to the initiated, not much was known about either.

However, we can make some educated guesses.

Since Dionysus was the God of wine, ecstasy, and music, it is thought his rites involved all three. (Both wine and hallucinogenics, as well as sex , dancing and singing.) The following is a quote from The Bacchae by Euripides.

“Following the torches as they dipped and swayed in the darkness, they climbed mountain paths with head thrown back and eyes glazed, dancing to the beat of the drum which stirred their blood’ ‘In this state of ekstasis or enthusiasmos, they abandoned themselves, dancing wildly and shouting ‘Euoi!’ [the god’s name] and at that moment of intense rapture became identified with the god himself. They became filled with his spirit and acquired divine powers.

Dionysus predates the Olympian pantheon so this wild release is wholly different from the cool logic of an Athena or measured behavior of Apollo.

The other God, or Goddess in this case, that I researched was Artemis. Her great temple at Ephesus was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Like Dionysus, she is thought to be of pre-Greek origin, a goddess in her own right, before the Classical Greeks tied her to Zeus and put her in with their Olympic Gods. In Minoan Crete, there was a link between a goddess Britomartis and Artemis. Both were hunters, nurturers of the young, and virgins. In both cases, the bear was sacred to them. (In Murder of Furies, I begin with a ceremony in which little girls dress as bears, a ceremony also described as occurring in Classical Athens.

In both cases, we know very little of the mysteries involving their rites. (No one talked, apparently.) My takeaway, though, was that the initiations involved a transformation into someone different and that is what I tried to convey with Martis (whose name I adapted from Britomartis. I will add that the initiation was as difficult as the final quest itself.

Zeus and Dionysus in Crete

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The Cretan Zeus is not quite the same as the Classical Greek version of the God. For one thing, the Cretan Zeus is more of a harvest God who is born again each spring and dies in the Fall. Since Classical Greeks thought all Gods and Goddesses should be immortal, they changed the attribute of the God whose name they’d taken and declared all Cretans are liars. They kept, however, the story of his upbringing in a cave after his father, Cronus in Classical Greek mythology, swallowed all his children.  A prophesy declared one would be his killer. To prevent that, Cronus swallowed them. But Rhea, to protect her remaining child, dressed a stone in swaddling clothes so Cronus swallowed the rock instead.

In both versions, Zeus was nursed by a nanny goat – or one of several other animals such as a pig. Take your pick. I’ve now read several variations. Zeus’s crying was masked by the Kouretes, a group of armed men who clashed their weapons together to hide the cries.

So what does this have to do with Dionysus? Well, the Cretan Zeus is more like Dionysus. A mortal harvest God followed by ecstatic worshippers.

When I was in Greece at Delphi I asked our tour guide why Dionysus was so different from the Classical Greek Gods. They do not embody the Dionysian wildness and several represent rationality. She didn’t know but I have the answer now. Dionysus is a very old God. He is named in the linear B tablets. And in many, if not most, of the other Middle Eastern Bronze Age religions there are other Gods like him.

These early beliefs were concentrated on fertility – not just human fertility although in Bronze Age Crete the High Priestess, as an earthly representation of the Goddess, represented that fertility. Ritual intercourse was practiced not only in the Mediterranean but as far away as Norway. For these early farmers, fertility among the livestock and of course a good harvest meant the difference between life and death. According to Joseph Campbell, in very early times the king of the land, (or the consort to the Priestess) was sacrificed so that his blood would nourish the land and promote that fertility. This practice evolved to a ritual sacrifice, using animals or other rites that stood in for the death of the king.

That is why the High Priestess had such power. Although we are not entirely sure how much, I imagined her as THE power, with her consort controlling the administration of the state. Bulls and other animals were sacrificed, but other rituals were also employed. I suggest that the consort is required to reestablish his strength by facing a bull in the ring.

Of course, as the Priestess comes to the end of her fertile years, she would be replaced with a younger woman.

The Bull in Ancient Crete

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Bulls in Ancient Crete were sacred. We know that from the murals and the statuary that show how valuable the bull was. Rhytons, drinking cups, were even made in the shape of a horned bulls head. I’ve certainly discussed at length the ritual of bull leaping. Teenagers, little more than kids actually, ran at a charging bull, grabbing the horns, and flipping over the beast.

These are not out modern bulls either. These were bulls that were especially fast. They are not extinct, a poacher killed the last one that was housed in a Polish zoo.

How do we know about this ritual? Well, anyone who knows the Theseus myth is familiar with the minotaur. Athens had to send 14 tributes to Knossos; 7 boys and 7 girls. In the myth, they face the minotaur in the labyrinth. Theseus, with the aid of a ball of string and a sword given him by the king’s daughter Ariadne, defeats the minotaur.Frescoes from Knossos show they teenagers leaping over a charging bull. Another member of the team caught the jumper. There seems to be no doubt this ritual occurred.

What is behind the veneration of the bull? I’ve read varying explanations. Is it because the Bull represented the male principle, even in a society with a Supreme Goddess? Is it because of the connection with Poseidon. also a God in this culture. (I have mentioned previously how much the Classical Greeks borrowed from the Minoans).

A stylized version of the bull’s horns, called the Horns of Consecration, were used everywhere. Examples have survived in Knossos.

Hatshepsut

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A Murder of Furies, the third in the Bronze Age Crete series, will be released January 31.

In this outing, Ancient Egypt plays a large role.

A minor prince seeks the hand of Hele, the High Priestess’s daughter. She has turned him down multiple times but he won’t take no for an answer. He arrives in Knossos to press his suit in person. While he is there, Martis discovers that the prince is allying himself with Khoranos, the High Priestess’s son, who is planning to take the throne.

And then the High Priestess is murdered! Martis suspects the Egyptians.

I don’t know if this could have happened but I thought it might be possible. Crete and Egypt were trading partners and some time after the time frame in which this story takes place, Ramses appealed to Crete for help in stopping the Sea Peoples, the pirates who attacked Egypt regularly. We know, therefore, that there was regular contact between the two.

When this mystery takes place, Hatshepsut, a woman, was the pharaoh of Egypt. Although women enjoyed a comparatively high status, there are very few women pharaohs. Hatshepsut was the daughter, the sister, and the wife of a king so her bloodline was impeccable.

The daughter of Thutmose I, she ruled jointly with her brother/husband, Thutmose III. She reigned for over 20 years and is generally regarded as a successful pharaoh.She reestablished trade networks that had been disrupted during a previous war and although was engaged in warfare in the early part of her reign, oversaw a long and prosperous era. She also embarked on many building projects.

She was almost lost to history since her cartouche was removed from her monuments. Her brother, Thutmose III, did not remove her cartouche until the end of his reign. Since by the little we know, the relationship between Thutmose and Hatshepsut was a good one, it is suggested that his son, Amenhotep II was the defacer.

Not much is known about her. She had one daughter and seems to have been a good ruler. A mummy believed to be hers has been discovered. An examination shows she had diabetes, cancer and bad teeth.

As even many layman know, the Egyptians married siblings, nieces, and daughters. The accepted explanation is that only another royal had the proper bloodline. Another theory is that this was an effort to keep the power concentrated in one family’s hands.. One suggestion I find particularly interesting is that, because of a woman’s connection to a Supreme Goddess, a holdover from the Goddess worship of earlier times, only a female member of the royal family could give legitimacy to the throne and to her relative’s rule.

Weavers and weaving

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In prehistoric sites, remnants of string skirts have been found. Plant fibers, twisted into cords, and knotted together. Think macrame. From this simple beginning arose weaving. Every culture has some form of weaving from the simplest form of loom to the more complicated ones used by hand weavers today.

The Egyptians used a ground loom that, to my modern body, looks uncomfortable to use.

How do we know the Egyptians were weaving so long ago? Well, there are pictures inscribed next to the hieroglyphics.. And also, remnants of clothing has been found in excavations. In 1913, Sir Flinders Petrie found a pile of linen cloth about thirty miles outside of Cairo. Years later, researchers from the Victoria and Albert Museum were sorting though the pile when they came upon a remarkably well preserved dress. It was nicknamed the Tarkhan dress and the age was estimated at 5000 years. Almost fifty years later, the dress was carbon dated and discovered to be from about 3000 B.C.E. Easily from Egypt’s first dynasty, maybe even before.

In Peru, the women employed a back strap loom.

The early Scandanavians used a loom with weights tied to the bottom threads.

The Navaho, who still weave blankets and so for sale, use a simple four piece frame.

In every culture, weavers enjoyed fairly high status. Although not aristocrats, they were among the skilled craftsmen – what passed for the middle class of that time. Without weavers, there would have been no cloth.

Textiles were time-consuming to make, and thus expensive, and learning to weave takes time. In the Middle Ages, an apprenticeship took between seven to nine years. Weave

I wanted to pay homage to this valuable craft. In my Bronze Age Crete mysteries, Martis comes from a family of weavers. (Yes, even in Bronze Age Crete, the women were weavers. Loom weights were found in Akrotiri. And the Minoans, who were the sailors of this age, traded the textiles all over the Aegean.) She does not want to be a weaver, hoping for something more exciting and adventurous – like jumping over a charging bull.

In the Will Rees mysteries, he is a weaver, a traveling weaver. Since women were not supposed to work or leave home, men like Will Rees traversed the early USA with a loom in their wagon bed, weaving for the farmwives.

What saw the end of several millennia of weaving as a profession?

Well, Rees is already seeing the end of his career with the importing of calicoes and other fabrics from India. But the real end to this profession came with the Industrial Revolution and the mechanization of weaving.

Was Minoan Crete an Empire?

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One of the problems with understanding the culture in Ancient Crete is that we are limited to archaeological discoveries. We have not deciphered Linear A and so the writings, that might explain unknowns about this civilization cannot be read. That means that many facts, about their diet for example – did they have cheese? -, about their political structure – was there a King or was it a theocracy-, or about whether this society was an empire or a loose confederation of city states, are unknown.

We know there were colonies spread out over the Aegean. Akrotiri, buried in ash and currently being excavated, is one. But were they just colonies or independent city states?

On Crete, other cities besides Knossos, arguably the largest and best known, were wealthy and powerful. Gortyna was one and it is thought there was conflict between the two cities. That seems to imply equally powerful city states – but we don’t know.

I’ve read arguments on both sides of the debate and both seem equally plausible to me.

Age and Athletes.

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The Olympics are associated with Classical Greece, where these games officially began.

But there were contests of athletic skill before that. And women participated. At least we know they did in Sparta. (Some of the writings by men in other areas were shocked by the freedom of Sparta’s women.)

Since the murals and frescoes in Knossos seem to display both male and female athletes, I chose to believe the young women in Minoan Crete also engaged in races and other games of skill.

And with the Summer Olympics are going on now, I’ve reflected on the athletes who are competing.

I’ve gotten more than a few questions on the youth of my protagonist. (Martis is 16.) Here’s my question: do you think a forty-year old has the stamina, the speed, and the fearlessness to run at a charging bull?

Even in the 2024 Olympics, the athletes tend to be young. One of the skateboarders is 11. Another competitor is 12. There are quite a few teenagers competing. DHINIDHI DESINGHU, a swimmer from India, is 14 years old.

Hezly Rivera. American gymnast, is 16. After Kamila Valieva, a Russian figure skater, won at fifteen (and then lost the gold because of a doping scandal) the age for competing in figure skating has been raised to 17.

The ‘old’ athletes in their late twenties are referred to as though they have one foot in the grave and the other on a roller skate. Simone Biles, arguably the best modern female gymnast, is the oldest competitor at 27 since the 1950’s. She’s referred to as a ‘veteran’ and ‘experienced.’So, a 16 year-old athlete is not an outlier at all, even now.